By guest author
Timothy Alexander Walton
Several weeks ago, French President Nicolas Sarkozy cited French intelligence services in stating Iran had maintained a clandestine nuclear weapons program. Yet, as President Sarkozy has called attention to Iran, attention on France’s nuclear position as a global nuclear leader has increased. In fact a cogent analysis of France’s civilian nuclear energy program suggests it is aiming to be the political and industrial champion of a supposed worldwide expansion of nuclear power for reasons essential to France’s own energy policy.
History
France's ambitious nuclear energy program was commenced by General Charles de Gaulle in 1958, but it was not until the 1973 Oil Shocks that nuclear power became a national priority. The first plants were gas-cooled plants partially designed and built by the nationalized electricity company Electricité de France (EDF). This attempt in the 1960s largely failed, however, leading France to purchase American Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR) designed by Westinghouse. Sticking to just one plant design meant the 56 plants were much cheaper to build than in the U.S. and regulatory boards could apply nationwide operating lessons learned at individual plants. Today, all operating plants are PWRs with the exception of the Phenix, which was part of an initiative to develop sodium-cooled fast breeder reactor technology. Currently, France operates 59 plants and is a major developer and exporter of nuclear energy technology.
Why nuclear?
Why France chose the nuclear path is succinctly summarized by Claude Mandil, the General Director for Energy and Raw Materials at the Ministry of Industry.i He enumerates at least three reasons. First, in the wake of the Oil Shocks on the 1970s, French policy makers desired a more energy independent policy. Assessing their options, they succinctly observed: "no oil, no gas, no coal, no choice." Second, France has a tradition of large, centrally managed technological projects, and the nuclear endeavor nicely followed that tradition. Lastly, French authorities assiduously presented the benefits and risks of nuclear energy to the French populace (detractors stress risks were grossly understated).ii In order to better understand the role of nuclear energy in France, we should do the same.
(Nuclear power dominates the production of energy in France)
French energy policy is defined by the Energy Act of 13 July 2005 which identifies four cardinal energy policy priorities. (1) To contribute to national energy independence and guarantee security of supply (2) To ensure competitive energy prices (3) To protect human health and the environment, in particular by fighting against climate change
(4) To guarantee social and territorial cohesion by ensuring access to energy for all. Furthermore, the French program relies on centralized management, close cooperation among the key industrial players (in particular EDF and the engineering giant Areva) and the government, and recycling nuclear waste. This policy and practices guide the current French nuclear energy program and its continued development.
How important is nuclear power?
The French nuclear energy system provides 79% of electricity produced in 2007. This makes it the country most reliant on nuclear energy for its electricity, and the second highest producer in the world after the U.S. This unusually high reliance on nuclear energy necessitates a large number of load following instead of load bearing nuclear plants.
(Nuclear energy contributes to France’s very respectable 50% energy independence ratio)iii
But, truly how important is nuclear power? This issue was brought up in the 2007 Presidential debate. Candidate Ségolène Royal stated 17% while Mr. Sarkozy averred 50%.iv The difference in the correct answer lies in the terms capacity, production, consumption, and primary energy consumption.v Nuclear energy’s contribution to the primary energy consumption is approximately 24%. Due to the fact the transport sector dominates France’s primary energy consumption, nuclear energy’s contribution to electrical output Is largely negated. Nonetheless, nuclear energy greatly contributes to France’s relative energy independence—especially compared to some of its European neighbors.
(While France has reduced its dependence on oil by 19% since 1973, the French transport sector negates the monumental gains of nuclear power in the electrical sector.)
Tomorrow’s energy security
France’s robust nuclear energy program is facing two serious challenges, namely fuel cycle concerns and the issue of aging plants. France’s sources of uranium are secure. Annual supplies of around 10,500 tons largely come from Canada and Niger.vi
However, the end side of the nuclear cycle is encountering safety and security concerns. France is one of the few countries with an active nuclear reprocessing program. In it a Mixed Oxide (MOX) of 97% uranium and approximately 3% plutonium is produced, essentially recycling used uranium.vii This process, though, has produced 300 tons of plutonium and over 890,000 cubic meters of radioactive waste. This waste, the plutonium in particular, presents a security concern as well as a safety concern, a position Washington has vocally expressed. As of now, there is uncertainty over where to store it. While French citizens expressed enthusiasm over having nuclear plants in their provinces, a more “not in my backyard” (NIMBY) position has been adopted when faced with the prospect of becoming waste repositories for centuries if not millennia. A 2007 20-country survey by Accenture showed that while public resistance to nuclear power had recently eased in many countries, French consumers had become strikingly more negative. A contributing factor may include a series of scandals involving EDF, in particular a case of EDF allegedly spying on anti-nuclear, activist group Greenpeace.viii
(French President Nicolas Sarkozy and UAE Sheik Kalifa bin Zayed al-Nahayan)ix
A second concern to France’s nuclear energy plants are their increasing age. As nuclear energy constitutes such a large part of France’s electricity mix, it is relatively inelastic in changing sources of electricity. Consequently, the maintenance of an active nuclear energy program is seen as essential to energy stability. With aging domestic plants, France needs to revitalize its nuclear energy industrial base and achieve successes abroad in order to reduce costs.
Industry analysts posit the construction of a nuclear power plant is profitable only when the price of crude oil exceeds $50 per barrel. Moreover, a possible future carbon pricing regime may favor a country’s use of nuclear energy. According to Energy Technology Perspectives (IEA, 2006), with a carbon price of at least $25 per ton of carbon dioxide (a goal established by certain elements of the French government), nuclear power would be exceedingly attractive.x With oil prices unlikely to dip significantly below $50 per barrel, France has launched a nuclear marketing offensive both domestically and abroad. xi It is currently building new reactors titled the European Pressurized Reactor (EPR) in France and another in Finland. Since taking office May 2007, President Sarkozy has upheld the spirit of supporting national champions. In May 2008 the cabinet approved the creation of the Agency France Nuclear International, essentially a French government lobbying office. Through the personal intervention of President Sarkozy, France has succeeded in signing deals worth billions of dollars to build nuclear power reactors or offer technical advice to many states, including Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, India, China, and Poland.xii
The rising costs of French nuclear plants and proliferation concerns have slowed the pace of French successes, though. In 2009 the new EPR Areva plant was costing 5.3 billion euros. The very high cost of the plants, especially in light of the current financial crisis, has inhibited smaller states from more seriously pursuing financing for nuclear projects. Moreover, a certain level of international opprobrium over the proliferation of nuclear technology has been expressed toward France, specifically over the potentially destabilizing effects of the proliferation of nuclear technology in the Middle East.
The state of nuclear France
In summation nuclear energy’s extraordinary contribution to France’s production of electricity assures its prominent position in France’s nuclear energy mix. For its future success, however, continued close cooperation between the French state and its nuclear energy companies will be required. Furthermore, in a possible carbon-constrained future, nuclear energy will likely continue to be a crucial component of the energy mix. While fuel cycle and cost concerns merit increased attention, France’s great past successes signal France’s commitment to its nuclear program and portend continued involvement.
i Palfreman, Jon. “Nuclear Reaction”, PBS, 2008.
iv Du Bois, Denis. “France Gets X Percent”, Energy Priorities, 3 May 2007.
vii “Energy Technology Essentials: Nuclear Power”, IEA, March 2007.
viii “Nuclear conflict”, The Economist, 23 April 2009.
ix Smith, Michelle; Ferguson, Charles. “France’s Nuclear Diplomacy”, International Herald Tribune, 11 March 2008.
x Mackenzie, Kate. “France goes for a carbon tax?”, The Financial Times, 4 September 2009.
xi Smith, Michelle; Ferguson, Charles. “France’s Nuclear Diplomacy”, International Herald Tribune, 11 March 2008.
